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| Rajendra Chola’s Thiruvalangadu copper plates |
Introduction
Copper plates were issued throughout the reigns of various dynasties that governed ancient Tamil Nadu, including the Pallavas, Cholas, Pandyas, Cheras, Vijayanagara rulers, Nayakas, Marathas, and local chieftains. Rajendra Chola’s Thiruvalangadu copper plates, for instance, were instrumental in historically establishing the continuity of the Chola lineage. Similarly, copper plates were highly effective in chronologically sequencing the successive generations of Tamil rulers. While these plates illuminate various cultural facets of ancient Tamil Nadu, such as the rulers’ territories, the religious and cultural conditions of the time, political history, and grants, it is imperative to investigate their authenticity.
This study aims to examine spurious copper plates discovered in Tamil Nadu and elsewhere. Beyond verifying the authenticity of the plates, the research seeks to filter out the exaggerated historical narratives and fabricated figures—like separating the dross from the copper—to reveal the genuine history and culture of Tamil Nadu. This article will explore the history of these forged plates, the motives behind their creation, the methods of their detection, and the reasons for the transition from copper plate inscriptions to paper documentation, thereby investigating spurious copper plates from various perspectives.
While copper plates are invaluable resources for understanding the political and cultural landscape of ancient Tamil Nadu, it is essential to critically examine both the manufacturing process of these plates and the veracity of the information they contain. This article will comprehensively explore the circulation of spurious copper plates, which have been present in Tamil Nadu and various other parts of India for over 1,500 years. Furthermore, we will delve into the history of their detection from ancient times to the present day, along with the methodologies used to identify them.
This article will present various perspectives and provide supporting examples on how the reliability and authenticity of copper plates can be scrutinised and confirmed. Additionally, it is noteworthy that most of the copper plates discovered in Tamil Nadu are composed in two languages: Sanskrit and Tamil. This necessitates an approach that addresses and analyses the texts in these two distinct linguistic contexts. Moreover, a significant number of copper plates exist that were prepared by individuals for themselves, rather than being directly issued by a royal decree. This article will also extensively discuss the specific motivations and needs that drove the creation of such self-issued and potentially forged copper plates.
General Methodologies for Investigating the Authenticity of Copper Plates
Researchers generally advise careful consideration of the following aspects when discovering or studying copper plates:
- The physical characteristics of the copper plate, its format, and provenance: This includes the design of the plate, the sequence of the sheets (plates), the ring used to string them together, the royal seal or signet engraved on the ring, and the location where the plates were found. These factors help in estimating the plate’s reliability.
- The paleography and orthography of the inscription: The study of ancient scripts (paleography) is crucial for identifying the nature of the script and its grammatical structure.
- Verification of chronological data: This involves confirming that the dates, years, days, lunar mansions (Nakshatras), lunar days (Tithis), and astronomical events mentioned in the plate are consistent and not contradictory.
- The content relating to the ruler and the recipient: Careful verification is required for information regarding the king, his dynasty, historical details, and the person who received the grant (the donee). This information must be cross-referenced with established historical timelines to ensure it corresponds with the supposed period of the copper plate.
These constitute the general research methodologies. By applying these methods, numerous forged copper plates have been discovered not only in Tamil Nadu but also in various other states. We will examine a few such instances in this article.
The Madhuban Copper Plate of Harshavardhana
The famous Madhuban Copper Plate from Uttar Pradesh, dating to the 25th regnal year of King Harshavardhana (c. 631 CE), provides crucial information. The plate records that a Brahmin named Vamaratya had been in possession of a village called Somakundaka for a long time, based on a spurious charter (kūṭaśāsana). Upon discovering this, the king exposed the false charter, destroyed it, and transferred the ownership of the village to two other Brahmins, Vataswami and Sivadevaswami. The Madhuban plate1 refers to the ‘false charter’ as kūṭaśāsana in Sanskrit. This term, kūṭaśāsana, is also found in the Manusmriti2 and the Yajnavalkya Smriti3. Although the Manusmriti states that “those who forge royal decrees, sow discord among the people, kill women, infants, or Brahmins, or serve enemies—should be slain by the king”4, no records are available to indicate that King Harsha meted out the aforementioned punishment. This Madhuban plate is a highly significant inscription, clearly demonstrating the circulation of forged copper plates as early as the beginning of the 7th century CE and the subsequent action taken by the king to identify them.
Citing the Madhuban copper plate, the Archaeological Survey of India confirmed a plate found in East Bengal as a forgery5. This plate was obtained from a Bengali person in Kolkata in 1908. While the paleography of the plate was determined to be close to the Gupta period of the 6th–7th centuries, the fact that the beneficiary’s name was written in a recent style was cited as the reason for declaring it spurious. The article further notes that this plate was created with the help of a genuine copper plate. It is noteworthy here that the Archaeological Survey of India suggested that a plate found a few years prior in the Faridpur district6, of which Dr.Hoernlé had only studied the initial lines, served as the model for the East Bengal plate. Since the lines of the East Bengal plate closely resembled those of the Faridpur plate, it is hypothesised that the Faridpur plate was used to create this forgery. This indicates that the method used during that period was to take a genuine plate as a model, utilising its descriptions of the ruler’s glory, dynastic pride, regnal year formalities, and land boundaries, and then altering the details to suit the forger’s needs.
The Copper Plate of Chera King Arivarman
The Cheras are referred to as Keralaputras even in the inscriptions of Ashoka. The Mercara copper plate, which chronicles the genealogical succession of the Chera kings, names Arivarman as the third ruler. This plate records that during the reign of Maharajadhiraja Arivarman, in the Saka year 169 (c. 247 CE), a Buddhist scholar named Vadimadagajendra arrived at the Talavanapura palace and challenged the king to a debate on the impermanence of living beings. In response, Madhavabhattan, a Brahmin of the Bhrigu gotra and son of Govindabhattan, successfully upheld the permanence of life and defeated Vadimadagajendra in the debate. Consequently, the king granted the village of Origodu to Madhavabhattan. Although Burnell7 identified this as one of the most ancient copper plates found in India, he concluded that the plate was spurious because its paleography belonged to the 10th century CE.
However, a few years ago, the former Director of the Tamil Nadu State Department of Archaeology, Dr. R. Nagasamy, visited London to examine the plate and stated that it is not a spurious inscription8. It is noteworthy that this plate was reportedly discovered in Thanjavur. It can be inferred from the paleography (script style) that some of the copper plates available from the period between the 3rd century CE and the 6th century CE were either written at a later date or were inscribed by adding additional grants to an earlier one. A prime example of the aforementioned statement is the Pallankovil copper plate of Simhavarma Pallava. In this copper plate, a gap of nearly 200 years can be observed between the Sanskrit portion and the Tamil portion. When analysed based on the paleography of the Tamil script, it appears to belong to the 8th century CE9. However, since Simhavarma Pallava lived during the 6th century CE, it is evident that certain parts of this copper plate were added and issued at a later date.
Chalukya Copper Plates
This copper plate records that, in the Śaka year 411, on the full moon day of the month of Vaikasi (c. 489 CE), the governor Sāmiyārā, acting on the command of the Western Chalukya King Pulakeshin I, granted 700 villages to the Jinalaya (Jain temple) in the town of Alaktakanagara. However, Dr. Fleet10 indicates that the paleography of this plate resembles that of the 12th century CE. Furthermore, he notes that this charter was extensively modeled after the script style of the copper plates of Rajaraja II and Kulottunga Chola, and the seal of this plate also appears to be of a later period.
Dr. Fleet also points to another plate11, purportedly issued by the Western Chalukya king Vikramaditya I (c. 610 CE) in Śaka year 532, which he states has the script style of the 9th or 10th century. He suggests that this particular plate may have been written during the reign of Govinda III.
A copper plate discovered in the area of Ahādanagāram in the erstwhile Madras Presidency records that the Eastern Chalukya king Maharaja Vishnuvardhana V granted the village of Pṛthivīpallava-paṭṭaṇam. The first 17 lines of this inscription are in Sanskrit, followed by Old Telugu. However, it lacks crucial chronological details such as the year, date, or day of the week. Due to its confusing orthography, Dr. Fleet concludes that this plate is highly suspect12.
Copper Plates Found in Kanchipuram
A private copper plate was acquired by the Collector of North Arcot District. It features the Goddess Kamakshi along with the Sun and Moon, and five human figures on its reverse. This inscription is entirely in the Tamil language. It narrates a story where the Pancha Kammalars, a sub-caste of the Idangai (Left-Hand) division, were conducting the car festival of Kamakshi Amman in Kanchi. A sorcerer (Māntiravāti) named Senai Singapuli, belonging to the Valangai (Right-Hand) division, used his magical powers to halt the chariot. Kamakshi Amman then appeared in the dream of the Pancha Kammalars and stated that the problem could only be resolved by bringing another sorcerer from Kochi. The wife of Kamplaththān, Mangammāḷ, was immediately informed. Mangammāḷ assured them that she would move the chariot with the help of her son. Mangammāḷ’s son then arrived in Kanchipuram with his parents. Noticing numerous ghosts roaming around, he declared that they could only be driven away through an immediate human sacrifice ritual. As the Pancha Kammalars hesitated and stood perplexed, Singapuli reappeared and started a quarrel with Mangammāḷ’s son.
A fight broke out between the two, leading to them both being locked in a room and set on fire. They were also tied in sacks and thrown into a river. Despite these various trials, both men miraculously escaped without minor injury. Eventually, Mangammāḷ’s son established a trident (Sūlam) in front of the Kamakshi Amman temple, climbed it, and remained alive for three days. Singapuli, when laid upon a trident in front of the Ekambaranathar temple, died unexpectedly. Mangammāḷ’s son then proceeded to sacrifice his second wife, which finally caused the chariot to move. Because the chariot was moved by his magical power, the inscription records that the Pancha Kammalars should offer him two marakkals (a unit of measure) of rice annually. The plate reports were issued on the 11th day of the month of Vaikasi in the Sarvadhāri year, Śaka year 1098, and Kaliyuga year 4421. J.R. Henderson13, the Superintendent of the Madras Museum, notes that the Kaliyuga and Śaka years mentioned do not align, and the paleography appears to be of a much later period.
A Telugu copper plate, purchased in Tirupati Bazaar, narrates a similar event. It recounts that during the car festival organized by the Pancha Kammalars for Kālikādevi in Kanchipuram, a sorcerer halted the chariot. Another sorcerer was then able to move the chariot by sacrificing his pregnant daughter, and subsequently resurrecting the severed head back onto her body. The Kammalars, in appreciation of this deed, bestowed certain grants upon this sorcerer. This plate is reported to have been issued on the fifth Tithi of the month of Viśākha in the Śaka year 1200, which directly corresponds to April 28, 1278 CE. However, J.R. Henderson14 identifies this plate as a forgery because its paleography is of a much later period. The information on this plate appears to be closely related to the previously discussed plate.
The aforementioned copper plates are believed to have been created under the influence of the Valangai and Idangai social conflicts that were rampant in Kanchipuram. It is in light of this persistent, long-standing conflict in Kanchipuram that epigraphists like Krishna Sastri insist that the copper plates found in Kanchi must be examined with extreme caution.
Vijayanagara Period Copper Plates
A Telugu copper plate found in the Bellary district records that in the Śaka year 1109, Jaya year, on the 10th tithi of the month of Aśvayuja, a grant was made by Sampaśi Tipparājayyar to Dalavākkili Jogi Nāyaka of the Jagadāpi Kuṭṭi Durga region, during the reign of the Vijayanagara King Rājādhirāja Parameśvara Vīra Pratāpa Vijayabukkarāya. It also mentions that several villages, including Kampathūr, were established with Tipparājayyar’s permission. The Jaya year mentioned does not correspond with the Śaka year 1109; the Jaya year actually aligns with Śaka year 1096. Śaka 1109 corresponds directly to 1187 CE. The Vijayanagara Empire had not yet been established during this period, and no Vijayanagara ruler with the name specified is officially known to have reigned. Furthermore, as the paleography appears to be of a much later date, Henderson15 concludes that this copper plate is spurious.
Another Telugu copper plate found in the Kurnool district records that three brothers—Pedda Nāgana Gauḍa, Chinna Nāgana Gauḍa, and Lingala Gauḍa—abandoned their ancestral village, moved south to the village of Peḍahūrti, and built a temple for the Goddess Caūḍeśvarī on the hill there. The Deputy King (Sammeḷa Timmarājūlu) introduced them to the Vijayanagara King Śrī Vīra Pratāpa Harihara Rāyani. The king then granted some villages for the maintenance and worship expenses of the temple. This plate claims to have been issued on the tenth tithi of the month of Vaikasi in the Śrīmukha year, Śaka year 1420. However, the Śrīmukha year aligns with Śaka year 1435, which corresponds to 1513 CE. Crucially, the Harihara Raya mentioned as having issued the grant had already died in 1404 CE. Therefore, this copper plate is classified as spurious16.
Objectives Behind the Creation of Spurious Copper Plates
It is evident from the analysis of the aforementioned copper plates that forgeries primarily occur in documents relating to private grants. Ancient scriptural texts, including the Manusmriti, confirm the reality that fraudulent creations were in practice. Burnell17 suggests that detecting these forgeries can be straightforward in South India: by knowing the historical evolution of the various religious sects, forgeries can often be identified based on the concepts and names they contain.
A prime example of this is the attempt to establish Vidyāraṇya during the Vijayanagara period. The figure of Vidyāraṇya, who is now commonly cited as the founder of the Vijayanagara rule, was arguably constructed during the reigns of Achyutarāya and Sadāśivarāya. However, Father Heras18 extensively documented that in inscriptions reconfirming grants made during the time of Harihara and Bukka Rāya, the term “Vidyānagara” was used instead of “Vijayanagara.” This suggests a deliberate historical effort to establish that Vidyāraṇya was present at the very beginning of the Vijayanagara kingship.
In ancient times, royal decrees were initially conveyed through palm-leaf manuscripts (Ōlais). The Ōlai itself would often instruct that the decree be carved into stone and copper. Since palm-leaves have a short lifespan, the decree would be inscribed on the temple walls (stone) for public knowledge, and on copper plates for the personal use and records of the donee. Copper plates that were direct royal commands would typically be marked with the King’s distinctive royal seal (Muttirai) on the collection. This seal can be seen on the Chola plates, such as the Thiruvalangadu, Tiruvindalur, and Leiden plates. However, this unique royal seal is absent in some of the plates issued in the later period, especially after the 12th century.
Furthermore, during times of political transition or social turmoil marked by various societal divisions, people were often motivated by the turbulent environment. If a newly established government seemed favourable, some people would create copper plates to glorify the new ruler, poetically narrate his dynastic achievements, and cite these as evidence to petition for the restoration of lands they claimed had been seized by the previous regime. Herman Joseph Tieken19 argues that such claims, like those made in the Velvikudi Grant of the Pandya king (where the donee claims, descent from the Pālyāgaśālai Mudukuḍumi Peruvaḻuti and Koṛkai Naṛkoṛṟan), are not trustworthy.
Beyond copper-plate grants, instances of spurious charters are also documented within stone inscriptions. A salient example is found in an inscription of Kulothunga III at the Amritaghateswarar Temple in Thirukkadaiyur, Mayiladuthurai district.
The inscription records20 that following the demise of Bharadvaji Kalavinoda Panditan of Tiruvalanjuli—who held hereditary worship rights at the Tiruvirattaanam-udaiyar and Tirumayanam-udaiyar temples—a local resident named Kunikkumpiran Saiva-vidyadhara-Brahma-maharaja and his father, Saivachintamani Brahmamaharajar, asserted a claim to these priestly offices. They maintained that they had been appointed by royal decree and even had this “order” engraved upon the temple walls to legitimize their service. However, upon the matter reaching Svamidevar (the King’s preceptor), an inquiry revealed their “unworthiness and false pretensions.” Consequently, the imposters were dismissed, and the rightful incumbents—Bharadvaji Brahmamaharajan Kuttappiran Kalavindodapanditan, Devapperuman Saiva-surya-Brahmamaharajan, and their kin—were reinstated. Their original rights and perquisites, as practiced until the King’s 16th regnal year, were restored and further expanded to include worship rights for other deities such as Kalakaladevar, Koothadumdevar, Vikrama Cholisvaramudaiyar and Kulottunga Cholisvaramudaiyar. Following a petition by Vikramasola-Brahmamaharajan for royal ratification, the King formalised this restoration through his officers, including Rajanarayana-Muvendavelan. This record serves as a critical historical testament to the fabrication of epigraphical records as a stratagem to illicitly secure ecclesiastical privileges and temple honors/rights.
The Introduction of Paper and the Decline of Copper Plates
Although the use of paper spread from China to India around the 4th century CE, it was not initially adopted for official royal documentation. During the rule of Islamic dynasties in India, the use of copper plates gradually diminished, and the use of paper began to proliferate. The reasons for this transition included the ease of issuing orders and the significantly lower cost compared to copper plates. Furthermore, the local official receiving the royal order would validate it by affixing a seal, a measure that helped curb the production of fake documents.
However, Jonathan Bloom21 points out that because the Vijayanagara and Maratha rulers in South India were Hindu kings, they continued the older tradition of issuing decrees on copper plates. It is noteworthy in this context that Gopal22 observes that many copper plates from the Vijayanagara period are either spurious or highly suspect.
The Maratha rulers, influenced by the legacy of the Vijayanagara Empire and their desire to re-establish a Hindu kingdom, also followed the older tradition of using copper plates23. This adherence led to the creation of forgeries during their period as well. A cultural inclination developed among the local populace to even inscribe orders issued on paper onto copper plates. Pushkar Sohoni notes the discovery of a forged copper plate purportedly issued during the time of the Maratha King Shivaji Bhonsale24. According to Sohoni, there were two main reasons why local people transcribed paper orders onto copper plates: first, the physical form of the copper plate was seen as a status symbol in society; and second, the copper plate offered a significantly longer lifespan compared to paper25.
In some instances, when genuine royal orders were lost or misplaced, they were recreated. Solomon26 mentions that these recreated copper plates were sometimes legally accepted, provided their authenticity was verified by local officials.
Sanskrit and Tamil Languages in Copper Plates
We have thus far extensively examined how copper plates were forged and subsequently detected. We will now consider the practice of using two languages on a single copper plate. Typically, the plates begin with the king’s glory, mythological narratives, and religious beliefs inscribed in Sanskrit, followed by historical information, contemporary grants, details of the donee, land boundaries, and witnesses recorded in the Tamil language (the vernacular). Most copper plates discovered in Tamil Nadu adhere to this structure.
A comparison between the Paḷḷaṉkōvil copper plates of the Pallava King Simhavarman and the Thiruvalangadu copper plates of Rajendra Chola readily illustrates this pattern. The Sanskrit portion was predominantly authored by Brahmins, as evidenced by Chola-era plates like the Thiruvalangadu plates27. Since this section primarily extols mythological narratives, its complete reliability is questionable. However, it is significant that the section containing genuine historical news and contemporary information is recorded in Tamil, the language of the common people.
This confirms that mythology and history were approached separately through different languages from ancient times: the mythological grandeur was recorded in Sanskrit, a language generally inaccessible to the masses, while the genuine historical information was written in the comprehensible Tamil language. Therefore, when analyzing a copper plate, it is essential to scrutinize its authenticity from multiple perspectives.
Conclusion
A comprehensive review of the preceding information clearly reveals that the primary motivations behind the creation of spurious copper plates were claims over land rights, assertions over temple administration and worship rights, and the propagation of caste or lineage pride. These same underlying reasons continue to drive the creation of fraudulent documents even today, extending beyond the historical period.
Therefore, to gain a truthful and unbiased understanding of Tamil Nadu’s history and culture, it is essential to approach copper plates with extreme caution and critical scrutiny. This article has aimed to establish the historical context of how forged documents arose, the motives and needs that drove their creation, and the methods used for their detection. The ultimate goal is to demonstrate that only by approaching Tamil Nadu’s history through a scientific and unbiased lens, free from the influence of caste, religion, language, or ethnicity, can the genuine history and culture be revealed to the world in a manner that is universally accepted.
Footnotes
- Epigraphia Indica Vol. 1, page 67 ↩
- Manusmṛti 9.232 ↩
- Yājñavalkya Smṛti ii.240 ↩
- kūṭaśāsanakartṝṃśca prakṛtīnāṃ ca dūṣakān | strībālabrāhmaṇaghnāṃśca hanyād dviṣ sevinastathā ?? || 232 || ↩
- ‘A forged copper plate inscription from Eastern Bengal’- Annual Report 1907- 08 of Archaeological Survey of India, page 255 ↩
- Indian Antiquary Vol 21, page 44 ↩
- Elements of South Indian Paleography from fourth century to the Seventeenth Century A.D by A.C.Burnell, page 28 ↩
- Indian Charters on Copper Plates by Albertine Gaur, page 8 ↩
- https://www.tamilvu.org/tdb/titles_cont/inscription/html/pallanko.htm ↩
- Indian Antiquary Vol.7, page 209 ↩
- Ibid. Page 217 ↩
- Indian Antiquary Vol. 13, page 185 ↩
- Catalogue of Copper-Plate Grants by J.R.Henderson, page 67 ↩
- Ibid. Page 78 ↩
- Ibid. Page 43 ↩
- Ibid. Page 48 ↩
- Elements of South Indian Paleography by A.C.Burnell, page 77 ↩
- Beginnings of Vijayanagara History by Rev. H. Heras, page 28 - 34 ↩
- Kāvya in South India: Old Tamil Caṅkam Poetry by Herman Joseph Hugo Tieken, page 132 ↩
- South Indian Inscriptions Vol 22, Part I, No.40 ↩
- Paper before print: The history and impact of paper in the Islamic world by Jonathan M. Bloom ↩
- Inscriptions of the Vijayanagara Rulers, Vol.2 by B.R. Gopal & Shrinivas Ritti ↩
- The Frontiers of Memory: What the Marathas Remembered of Vijayanagara by Sumit Guha, Modern Asian Studies, Vol 43, page 269 ↩
- A large feature article with illustrations was published by Baban Thakkar, "Kartavyakathör Dayäsägar" in the Marathi newspaper Sakal, Pune edition, 15. January 1995, Sunday Supplement no. 2, p. 4. ↩
- Paper documents and copper plates: localization of hegemonic practices by Pushkar Sohoni, Bulletin of SOAS, Vol 79, page 91 ↩
- The fine art of forgery by Saloman, page 107 ↩
- Irācēntira cōḻaṉiṉ tiruvālaṅkāṭṭuc ceppēṭukaḷ, cā.Kiruṣṇamūrtti, ulakat tamiḻārāycci niṟuvaṉam, 2014 ↩
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| Vignesh Srinivasan |
